CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The restoration of natural systems in urban areas has become a subject of increasing interest to professionals from a wide range of environmental disciplines. To a large degree, the restoration of "urban ecosystems" is emerging as a discipline in its own right. At the 1996 annual conference of the Society for Ecological Restoration (SER), 'Restoration of Urban Natural Areas' was the subject of a symposium which lasted one day out of three.

Urban natural areas provide habitat for wildlife, as well as close-to-home opportunities for citizens to experience nature in a more wild state than is offered at traditional urban parks. However, urban uses and processes take their toll on these areas. At the 1996 SER conference Pouyat (1996) points out, "Chemical changes result from increased inputs of ozone, nitrogen, sulphur, and heavy metals. Physical changes result from fluctuations of temperature from the urban heat island effect and from modified soil moisture regimes due to hydrophobic soil surfaces. Biological changes result from the introduction of non-native species into urban and suburban landscapes" (p. 84). Sauer (1996, p. 89) explains that "These are high intervention landscapes", indicating the need for human management, while McDonnell (1996, p. 75) comments, "The ecologically sound management and preservation of urban natural areas requires active intervention to reduce anthropogenic impacts and encourage natural processes." Parker and Pickett (1996) suggest that "Urban wildland areas present profoundly difficult situations for restoration and management" (p. 81). Nevertheless, projects in a number of cities illustrate the success that can be had. It is important to note that restoration of urban natural areas must be seen as part of an on-going process, not as a discrete event (Parker and Pickett, 1996).

Ecological restoration of urban natural areas can offer social benefits as well as ecological benefits. Addressing attendees at the Sixth National Urban Forest Conference, Vicki Clark, Director of Volunteer Center Services at the Points of Light Foundation in Houston, Texas notes that the "spirit of volunteerism....is growing in communities nationwide" and asks conference attendees if they are "ready to get involved in the work of 'people raising'" (Clark 1992, p. 114). She further states, "....national attention is now focused on citizen responsibility and involvement". Indeed, there is a growing ethic and interest among the citizens of this country to become involved in the shaping of their communities.

In several cities across the United States, the restoration of natural environments has become the vehicle for community participation for a growing number of people. From stream restoration and daylighting, to the restoration of wetlands, forests, prairies, and estuaries, numerous restoration efforts around the country are carried out by throngs of inspired volunteers. Steve Packard, Science Director of the Illinios chapter of the Nature Conservancy, has been involved in the North Branch Prairie Restoration Project in Chicago since 1977 (Mills 1995: Stevens 1995). Referring to his experience working on this project Packard (1990) states, "Unprecedented numbers of people are becoming passionately involved with the environment" (p. 72). In fact, over 4000 people are involved in the restoration of the prairie and oak openings (Jordan 1994).

Only recently has this social component of ecological restoration begun to receive attention as an important aspect to be studied in and of itself. Of twelve papers presented at the urban restoration symposia at the 1996 SER conference, only three made any reference at all to social factors related to restoration in urban areas. Of these three, a single paper had as its subject the social benefits derived from these projects. In 1990, an American Community Gardening Association (ACGA) expert panel, chaired by Mark Francis from the University of California, developed a document entitled A Research Agenda for the Impact of Community Greening. The agenda identified over one hundred potential areas of research. The ACGA board selected ten areas as "most critically in need of research and development." One of the top ten questions identified by the board asks, "How does community greening contribute to building social cohesiveness?" (Malakoff, unpublished manuscript)

This is the national context within which this thesis was developed. The study presented here focuses on eight community-driven restoration projects currently being carried out in Seattle's remnant native forests. It seeks to gain an understanding of both the ecological and social benefits these projects provide. Through a comparative study of these restoration projects, the thesis explores:

• citizen motivation for participation in neighborhood restoration projects,

• ecological, individual, and community benefits derived from restoration projects;

• the organizational structure adopted and resources utilized to accomplish project goals and sustain the project over time.

Chapter two provides background and framework within which to place the current study. Chapter three discusses relevant theory and concepts. Chapter four outlines the methods used to select the study projects and gather information about them. Chapter five provides a synthesis of interview results, along with a discussion. Concluding thoughts are presented in chapter six. Appendix A includes narratives describing interview results for each project.

The topic of this study is relevant to a number of disciplines including landscape architecture, urban planning, community development, sociology, and urban forestry. Each of these disciplines is concerned, in one way or another, with the quality of life in urban areas. It is important for each of these disciplines to recognize the interrelatedness between the well-being of the social and natural environments in urban areas. In our efforts to make our cities more habitable, we can use this link to our benefit; in other words, the natural environment can be an effective vehicle for creating a stronger social structure. In turn, as the human community grows stronger and more cohesive we are better equipped to care for the natural environment of the city.